Tag Archives: philosophy/religion

Term of Art: Social Worlds

“Social Worlds: A term which is frequently applied to ‘universes of discourse’ through which common symbols, organizations, and activities emerge. They involve cultural areas which need not be physically bounded. Typical examples might be the ‘social worlds’ of surfing, nursing, politics, or science. They Gay Community is a self-conscious social world. The concept has a long but vague history in symbolic interactionism and is discussed most clearly by Anselm Strauss (in Norman Denzin’s edited Studies in Symbolic Interaction, 1978).”

Excerpted from: Marshall, Gordon, ed. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Theory and Social Theory

“Theory, Social Theory: A theory is a account of the world which goes beyond what we can see and measure. It embraces a set of interrelated definitions and relationships that organizes our concepts or and understanding of the empirical world in a systematic way. Thus, we may establish a statistical relationship between poverty and crime, but to explain that relationship we might have to employ a number of theories: about people’s motivation, the social meanings attached to poverty and crime, and the structural constraints which keeps sections of the population in poverty.

Generally speaking there are three different conceptions of theory in sociology. Some think of theory as generalizations about and classifications of, the social world. The scope of generalization varies from theorizing about a particular range of phenomena to more abstract and general theories about society and history as a whole. Others believe that theoretical statements should be translated into empirical, measurable, or observable propositions, and systematically tested. Thus, in the example above, we should test assumptions about motivations, social meanings, and so forth. This approach is usually characterized (rather unhelpfully) as positivism. Finally, yet others argue that theory should explain phenomena, identifying causal mechanisms and processes which, although they cannot be observed directly, can be seen in their effects. For example, Marxists might use the alleged contradiction between the forces and relations of production (unobservable) to explain fluctuations in class struggle (observable). The label realism is sometimes attached to this view.

The term social theory is also applied commonly to the most general level of theories of society—to perspectives such as structural functionalism, phenomenology, or Marxism—which embrace most or all of the social sciences. Some prefer to call this level ‘social philosophy.’”

Excerpted from: Marshall, Gordon, ed. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

The Devil’s Dictionary: Politics

“Politics, n. A strife of interests masquerading as a contest of principles. The conduct of public affairs for private advantage.”

Excerpted from: Bierce, Ambrose. David E. Schultz and S.J. Joshi, eds. The Unabridged Devil’s Dictionary. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 2000. 

A Long, Flexible Lesson Plan (or a Short Flexible Unit Plan) on the 2020 United States Census as a Teachable Moment

OK, because I’m not working at the moment, I have had some time–in addition to working at publishing 30-50 posts a week on this blog–to think about writing new material that parents, students, and teachers working at a digital distance from their students could profitably use during this public health crisis. After a week or so of unemployment, I started to realize that the 2020 Census of the United States presented a perfect teachable moment; there are a lot of big social studies concepts at work during the census. Moreover, as I started to think through the lesson plan, I realized that I could write something big, in the sense that it would contain a lot of documents, but also flexible, in sense that parents and teachers could expand or contract it as their children, students, and circumstances require. Now that I’ve said that, let me point out that every document in this post is in Microsoft Word, so they are flexible and adaptable to help you best respond to the needs of the kids in front of you.

Now, about a month after starting work on this, it is time to publish it. As I am wont to do, I have allowed the perfect to become the enemy of the good here. I know that new ideas and therefore new questions for this lesson plan will continue to occur to me. Better to get this out than wait to get every last detail into these documents. In any case, I am confident those same thoughts will occur to users of this material; that said, if you have any questions about it, please leave a comment.

So, here is a lesson plan on using the 2020 United States census as a teachable moment. I’ve worked on this document for some time, but like most lesson plans, it may never be either completely coherent, or, indeed, complete. But for the moment, I think it’s sound.

In my classrooms, I always begin every lesson with a short exercise that I learned, while teaching in New York City, to call a “do-now.” I’ve assembled a large number of do-now worksheets for this lesson, all of them adapted from The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002) by E.D. Hirsch et al. For this lesson, the four most salient are–in order of relevance, I think–E Pluribus Unum, the Latin for “out of many, one.” The census, if nothing else, is an exercise in affirming that out of many places, one; as we’ve learned during the COVID19 crisis, we really are in this all together. One important dimension of the census is determining population figures for apportionment of congressional reputation. This worksheet on the Lockean concept of consent of the governed strikes me as especially important to understand in the context of the census. Given the role the census plays in our democratic elections, this worksheet on equal protection of law is undeniably germane here. In reiterating that we are all in this together, whether in stopping the spread of coronavirus or participating in civic processes like the census, this short exercise on the concept of esprit de corps also strikes me as pertinent to this lesson.

Should you need more Cultural Literacy worksheets for this lesson, or just in general, here, in basic list form, are the rest of the documents I selected as relevant to varying degrees to this lesson, to with these Cultural Literacy worksheets on: absolute monarchy; aristocracy; class; class consciousness; class structure; constitutional convention; faction; incumbent; individualism; meritocracy; nepotism; power elite; Roosevelt’s scheme to pack the Supreme Court, and vested interest. This selection ranges from quite relevant (faction, vested interest) to marginally relevant (class, class consciousness, etc.). If you need guidance on how to use these in the context of the larger lesson, drop a comment and I’ll see if I can help you make the connection and you can help your child or student understand that connection more clearly.

The census, structurally and in terms of the work performing it, is a large scale exercise in demography. That’s a word that means “the statistical study of human populations esp. with reference to size and density, distribution, and vital statistics” (Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition (Kindle Locations 118895-118896). Merriam-Webster, Inc.. Kindle Edition). That study always concludes in the issuance of a report. Demography is writing about people. Here are two word root worksheets that call upon students, in the context for this lesson, to perform a synthesis. The first is on the Greek roots demo and demi, which mean people; the second is on the Latin roots graph and graphy, which mean writing, written, recording, drawing, and science. If students complete these two worksheets, a simple question should suffice to assess understanding: “Now that you know what these word roots mean, what do you suppose demography is?” In fact, as you’ll see if you use these materials, that is the first question on the worksheet.

Finally, here is the reading and comprehension worksheet for this lesson. Now that I have that finished and posted, I do want to comment on the fact of gerrymandering, and how it might be used to extend this lesson a bit further–and raise students’ critical awareness of that current problem in our electoral system. To that end, here is a supplemental list of critical questions on gerrymandering to round out this lesson.

That’s it.

If you find typos in these documents, I would appreciate a notification. And, as always, if you find this material useful in your practice, I would be grateful to hear what you think of it. I seek your peer review.

Chapter 1 of The Reading Mind, “On Your Marks”: Summary, Implications and Discussion Questions

“Summary

  • We consider the purpose of cognitive activities (like reading) because it’s easier to think about the smaller-scale pieces of this activity if you know the larger goal to which they contribute.
  • The purpose of reading is the communication of thought across time and space.
  • Communicating thought directly into symbols would be impractical because it would require a lot of memorization, but a bigger obstacle is that we’d have to figure out how to represent grammar.
  • Instead of writing down thoughts, we write down oral language. Writing codes sound.

 Implications

  • The fact that writing codes spoken language should lead us to expect that reading ability in adults will be closely related to their ability to understand spoken language. It is. There is a strong relationship between oral comprehension and reading comprehension among people who can decode fluently. If you can’t follow a complicated written argument, for example, you wouldn’t be able to follow the argument if someone read it to you.
  • The fact that writing codes spoken language should also lead us to expect that explicit teaching of that code will be an important part of learning to read. It is. The amount of explicit instruction children need in the code varies, depending on other aspects of their oral language, but for some children this explicit instruction is vital.
  • The fact that our writing system does not use many logographs indicates that it would be a bad plan to treat words as though they are logographs—in other words, to teach children to focus on what words look like, rather than the sound they code. (The exception would be irregularly pronounced words that are very common, i.e. “be,” and “have.”)

 Discussion Questions

  • Sometimes a tool can be developed for one purpose but then used for another purpose. Are there purposes other than “transmit thoughts” to which writing is put?
  • I said that one of the disadvantages of a logographic writing system is that reading and writing would require the memorization of a lot of symbols. Suppose we did use a logographic writing system. What would this change mean for schooling and more broadly for society? Would different people be literate?
  • Consider the popularity of one type of logograph, the emoji. Their ubiquity, along with the fact that all writing systems use at least some logographs, suggests that there may be something that logographs communicate well that an alphabetic system does not capture well. What might that be?
  • Language is meant to transmit thoughts and it usually seems to serve that purpose well. Email messages, however, seem especially prone to misinterpretation. What tends to go wrong with email messages and why might that be?
  • I claimed that writing captures thoughts through oral language—you write what you say. But some types of communication seem to be closer to “what we say” than others. The writing in text messages, for example, is closer to the way I would speak to the person who will read it than, say, a letter I would write out. Should this matter to our characterization of what writing is?”

Excerpted from: Willingham, Daniel T. The Reading Mind: A Cognitive Approach to Understanding How the Mind Reads. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2017.

Historical Term: Agitprop

“agitprop Agitation propaganda, a theatrical device employed by the left-wing in Europe and the USA during the 1950s; in the 1960s it developed into what is now termed ‘street theater.’ Its purpose was to convey a political message, or political education, by seeking to interest and entertain.”

Excerpted from: Cook, Chris. Dictionary of Historical Terms. New York: Gramercy, 1998.

Term of Art: Teleology

“Teleology: A teleological explanation either explains a process by the end-state towards which it is directed; or explains the existence of something by the function it fulfills. In sociology, the former tends to be confined to theories of purposive human action, whereas the latter is a feature of functionalism. It is widely argued that teleological explanations are admissible only with reference to individuals and groups since they alone have explicitly formulated purposes or goals. Societies, by contrast, set themselves no such objectives. Evolutionary and systems theories, as well as theories which imply a historical logic or inevitability (such as historical materialism), are often criticized as being unacceptably teleological—although there have been controversial attempts to argue that even these explanations can be translated into conventional causal accounts.”

Excerpted from: Marshall, Gordon, ed. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Herm

“Herm: Pillar-form sculpture of classical antiquity, typically with a bearded face, armless torso, and prominent phallus. Originally, it probably represented the god Hermes. In European iconography it is symbolic of revelry and abandonment.”

Excerpted from: Diamond, David G. The Bulfinch Pocket Dictionary of Art Terms. Boston: Little Brown, 1992.

Term of Art: Synthesis

“Synthesis: The combination of two (or more) contradictory phenomena to produce something qualitatively new. The term is usually associated with the dialectical logic employed by some Marxists: for example, the economic contradictions of capitalism and the class conflict they generate, together produce socialism.”

Excerpted from: Marshall, Gordon, ed. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Term of Art: Society

“Society: Generally, a group of people who share a common culture, occupy a particular territorial area, and feel themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity—but there are many different sociological conceptions (see D. Frisby and D. Sayer, Society, 1986).

In everyday life the term society is used as if it referred in an unproblematic way to something that exists ‘out there’ and beyond the individual subject: we speak of ‘French society,’ and ‘capitalist society,’ and of ‘society’ being responsible for some observed social phenomenon. On reflection, however, such a usage clearly has its problems: for example, is British society a clear unity, or can we talk also of Welsh, Scottish, and Northern Irish societies? And, even within England, are there not wide cultural differences between (say) north and south? Is there one capitalist society—or many? Nor is a society the same thing as a nation-state. The former Yugoslavia clearly contained several societies: Croat, Slovenian, Serbian, and so on.

While many sociologists use the term in a commonsense way others question this use. Some symbolic interactionists, for example, argue that there is no such thing as society: it is simply a useful covering term for things we don’t know about or understand properly (see P. Rock, The Making of Symbolic Interactionism, 1979). Others, such as Emile Durkheim, treat society as a reality in its own right (see The Rules of Sociological Method, 1895).”

Excerpted from: Marshall, Gordon, ed. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.